Finally, I would like to acknowledge my own bias as a researcher, African American male and former attendee of U.S. public schools and universities while asserting that this topic selection does not seek to elevate one race above another, or race itself above the importance of gender, sexuality, disability and other social identities as barriers to academic achievement. Rather, this review seeks to expand the body of knowledge on what research literature suggests is the least comfortable identity-related barrier for educators by explaining how minority race, whether as a standalone indicator or one of multiple minority identities functions as a multi-level barrier to academic achievement.

Discussion

Public policy

Culturally responsive teaching

Given the projected and continued growth of minority children in U.S. classrooms and increasing social pressure for inclusive education, culturally responsive teaching has emerged as a promising path through which to connect classroom material to diverse groups by acknowledging cultural differences and promoting the feelings of belongingness needed to fully engage in any social environment. To date, at least one U.S. state has responded to diverse student needs by mandating culturally responsive teaching and leading standards; however, opponents continue to cite steps towards educational inclusion as politically charged. Although more research is needed to determine whether this assertion is due to culturally responsive teaching’s inherent acknowledgement of racial differences, fears of curricula engrained with an averse political ideology and/or a shared acronym with Critical Race Theory, existing research shows that culturally responsive teaching facilitates the real-world skills of empathy and access to others’ perspectives that are considered vital for leadership, and that White American children who receive lessons acknowledging race and multiculturalism are less likely to exhibit racial bias. The alternative, a culturally limited curriculum has been shown to deprive classrooms of diverse cultural concepts, reduce cultural competence for all students and has been viewed in hindsight as a barrier to education for race and ethnic minorities. Accounts of American Indian students’ resistance to monocultural curricula in the late nineteenth century were often reduced within colonial narratives, but research literature reveals organized hunger strikes, increased truancy and other means of intentionally resisting education in order to retain their language and culture. Today, culturally limited curricula continue to demonstrate a negative impact on racial division and student learning, and with the U.S. ranked at 22nd in science, math and reading (i.e., just slightly above average) by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), more research is needed to determine strategies that formalize culturally responsive teaching and drive educational uptake across all groups.

Affirmative action

Race-based affirmative action quotas were originally implemented in U.S. public schools and universities to ensure minority access to high quality academic institutions. However, despite its effectiveness in facilitating diverse learning environments and increasing minority students’ access to a quality education, affirmative action’s deep ties to race have historically subjected it to political headwinds and triggered unfounded questions of its legitimacy. The past few decades have seen some affirmative action critics deny the impact of racial bias on academic admissions, and several states have aligned with this sentiment by instituting affirmative action bans. As host to the largest U.S. public school system, California's affirmative action ban, in place since 1996, continues to harm the aspirations of millions of minority students who rely on educational attainment to reduce their own socioeconomic inequality and end generational poverty. For those disadvantaged students who are high performers, academic isolation in resource-poor schools often means attempting educational success under the weight of inadequate instruction, low student engagement, grade-inappropriate assignments, poor facility conditions and fewer programs in place for exceptional learners. Low availability of advanced placement (AP) classes that would allow qualifying students to earn a higher GPA are disadvantageous when these students go through the college admissions process, as are fewer extracurriculars that limit the peer and social development helpful for future employment. In response to the negative impact of affirmative action bans, continued calls for more accessible education in non-affirmative action states have led some to implement race-neutral alternatives such as school choice and selective enrollment. However, studies suggest that these race-neutral policies have only led to the disproportionate enrollment of affluent students in high quality schools while largely condemning low-income and minority students to low quality institutions and exacerbating educational disparities across race and economic groups. Furthermore, there is consensus in the literature that the adherence of race-neutral educational institutions to market-based principles will do little to close the racial achievement gap while almost certainly ensuring that the most underfunded schools with large minority student populations will inevitably fail while many of those children fall behind. Historically, when there is a failure to regulate systemic and institutional acknowledgements of racial bias, the result is often racially regressive policies and increasing disparities, and this trend is highly visible in states banning affirmative action which have experienced sudden decreases in minority representation at high quality schools and an accelerated resegregation of K-12 schools. These trends continue to support research-based suggestions that institutional diversity remains intact only so long as it is politically maintained. With affirmative action’s race-based accountability already proven effective at increasing diversity in schools, more research is needed to define strategies that reduce its political discomfort for policymakers and the public, such as rebranding under “positive action” as it is generally referred to in the UK and the EU. Research also suggests campaigns to raise awareness of how this policy benefits both disadvantaged groups and larger society as an effective mechanism for both improving and maintaining educational equity.

Bilingual education

Despite America’s linguistically diverse population, decades of political resistance and reduced federal funding once threatened to derail school programs for students with limited English proficiency (LEP). Late 20th century attitudes against linguistic diversity programs were powered by the country’s relative geographical isolation coupled with extreme nationalist, anti-immigration, monocultural and individualist views, as was made evident by the segregation of early LEP students from native English speakers. Such views also once inspired policy actions that reduced educational access for limited English proficiency (LEP) students like California’s Proposition 227. Approved in 1998 and finally repealed by a wide margin in 2016, Proposition 227 had all but eliminated bilingual instruction in California classrooms despite the state being home to 40% of the nation’s LEP students. Today, widespread support for linguistic diversity programs is helped by increasing numbers of non-native English speakers enrolled in U.S. schools. However, the expanding appeal of bilingualism continues to be stifled by lingering monocultural preferences for language assimilation, and thus, two predominant schools of thought have emerged based on individual states’ perspectives. Transitional bilingual education, a subtractive model that emphasizes English-only instruction at the cost of students’ native language has drawn condemnation for its negative impact on speaking confidence, classroom engagement and educational access for minority language students and its facilitation of cultural and linguistic erasure. Also, studies reveal that children of non-native speakers of English without the benefit of both native and English literacy are more likely to experience a loss in lifetime earnings, despite research suggesting that some minorities may welcome cultural assimilation in hopes of receiving greater benefits. Alternatively, two-way dual language immersion, an additive model that places English-dominant and LEP students side-by-side and offers reading instruction in both English and the native language has been shown to facilitate greater cultural retention, long-term native literacy advantages, adequate English proficiency and enhanced reading skills for its students who significantly outperform their transitional program counterparts on state reading assessments. States have taken note, and according to the U.S. Department of Education’s most recent report on Dual Language Education Programs, 35 states and the District of Columbia have adopted Spanish dual language programs, with 14 states adopting this program model for Chinese, 12 states for Native American languages and 7 states and the District of Columbia for French. As forward-thinking models like two-way dual language immersion programs continue to facilitate greater academic achievement and English-language acquisition at reduced cost to students’ native language, it is hopeful that bilingual education’s path to acceptance will become a model for other educational policy areas in need of continued evolution.

Community

Outdoor air quality

U.S. cities have largely adopted a pattern of unevenly distributing environmental hazards in favor of affluent communities, only worsened by Trump-era environmental deregulation which caused 22,000 additional deaths in 2019 alone and reinforced harmful land use disparities across socioeconomic boundaries. The proximity of heavily trafficked roads and high-polluting industrial facilities to low-income schools is indicative of how land use challenges disproportionately burden children in low socioeconomic neighborhoods. Students attending a U.S. public school in the top 10% for ambient neurotoxicant exposure are significantly more likely to identify as Hispanic, Black or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander and have free/reduced price lunch eligibility. Also, early childhood exposure to high levels of air pollution has been linked asthma and psychological distress, and these conditions may be financially problematic for disadvantaged families who are then further strained by costs of medication, hospitalization and missed work to accommodate increased school absences. The disproportionate environmental burden across socioeconomic boundaries and premature mortality risk from exposure to dangerous levels of cancer-causing pollutants has led to increased calls for environmental justice, prompting some state organizations like the California Air Resources Board to develop land use guidelines recommending against establishing new schools, day care centers or playgrounds near busy roads or high emissions-producing facilities. Research suggests that in addition to implementing land use guidelines, federal and state actors setting out to improve air quality for schools in neighborhoods with poor air quality should consider rerouting truck traffic, restricting diesel idling and increasing vegetation, as well as implementing forceful regulatory actions to ensure installation of particulate matter (PM) control technologies at high emissions-producing facilities. Furthermore, more near-source monitoring of pollutants is needed to assess current community exposure and long-term pollution trends, aid in the development of risk mitigation progress and help decrease incidence in air quality-related illness for vulnerable students.

Indoor environmental quality 

A high concentration of outdoor PM 2.5 and NO2 adversely impacts indoor air quality, making adequate ventilation that filters pollutants, ensures an acceptable level of indoor air quality and positively impacts attendance and performance a must-have for schools challenged by dangerous levels of outdoor air pollution. However, the responsibility of local taxpayers for funding facilities places low-income schools at a disadvantage, often leaving them with a limited operating budget, relatively poor building conditions, less maintenance and fewer inspections. The U.S. Government Accountability Office’s survey found that only two-thirds of school districts had performed a facilities condition assessment at least once in the past decade. Furthermore, 41% of school districts who had completed an assessment reported needing repairs or updates for the heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in more than half of their schools. Leaking HVAC systems may lead to damaged ceiling tiles and flooring, resulting in increased exposure to mold and other indoor allergens shown to exacerbate asthma. Thus, in order to mitigate these health risks, school districts should consider prioritizing repairs for damaged HVAC systems given its importance as a preventative health and safety measure, especially true in schools well-attended by children with asthma disease and increased susceptibility to asthma triggers. Schools may also consider toolkits such as the EPA’s Indoor Air Quality Tool for Schools Action Kit, the use of which has been associated with decreases in asthma inhaler use and school nurse visits due to asthma symptoms. Furthermore, research has shown socioeconomically disadvantaged children to have a higher prevalence of asthma. The relatively limited budgets for maintaining facilities in which many receive their education has drawn legal challenges from parents who contend that K-12 funding models violate a constitutional guarantee of basic education for all children by facilitating an insufficient distribution of funds to poorer schools. While school finance reform is not explored in-depth in this paper, the ties between environmental equity and funding make it difficult to discuss the former without mentioning the latter and equity-considerate revisions for state aid formulas are critical for improving facility budgets for low-income schools and promoting a safe standard of indoor environmental quality for teachers and students.

School and neighborhood safety 

Perceived safety is a primary consideration for parents during school selection, and so perhaps it is fitting that research shows parents themselves as a uniquely effective tool for dynamically enhancing school safety when engaged appropriately by educational leadership. A high level of in-school parental involvement has been associated with lower odds of invasive security measures such as drug sniffing K9s, metal detectors and contraband sweeps, and has been linked to decreases in school crime, violence and student bodily harm. Parent volunteers are especially important for schools well-attended by minority students given the intentionality with which they cultivate latent cultural assets by instinctively activating cultural wealth, brokering relationships between students and school leadership and modeling behaviors that are acceptable within cultural and school contexts. Although minority students often have their inherent cultural connection reinforced by shared experiences of societal stigmatization and race-based oppression in and outside of schools, minority parents are typically well-equipped to use these experiences as learning opportunities and guide students to develop culturally specific navigational strategies that strengthen assurances of group safety and reduce the environmental hostilities that are often a precursor to school violence. Unfortunately, parents of color may also experience barriers to engagement when expectations of blind support for school agendas don’t align with their children’s needs. Since minority children attending U.S. public schools are historically less well-served by these institutions, rather than adopting a traditional “helper” role, parents of color more frequently find themselves needing to engage school leadership as an “advocate” and seek resolution for unique issues. But one case study found that when a group of Latina parents advocated against anti-immigrant sentiment within the school, school leadership quickly removed its support for the parent group and subsequently became a barrier to further progress. Similar research-based accounts of difficulty encountered by minority parents highlight a need for principals and administrators who are skilled in cross-cultural parental engagement and have awareness of minority parents’ full potential as prominent health, safety, cultivation and academic assets skilled in moving the needle towards distraction-free learning.

Low perceived neighborhood safety may also serve as a distraction for students living in disadvantaged neighborhoods who justifiably worry about their safety on the way to and from school. Perceived neighborhood incivilities have been associated with declining levels of school engagement, depression and psychological distress, and research has shown a student’s neighborhood to be as predictive of educational outcomes as family or school characteristics. Schools often justify the enforcement of disciplinary policies during transit to and from school as promoting a safe school climate, and neighborhood-level interventions are just as important to ensuring a safe environment for students who walk to school. One such intervention is Chicago Public Schools’ Safe Passage, a collaborative, K-12 program that recruits community members to monitor popular routes to and from school in order to enhance student safety during school commutes. The Safe Passage program, which began with community-based organization members serving neighborhoods for 35 schools in 2009 and expanded service to 162 schools in 2019, has impacted reductions in simple and aggravated assaults, criminal trespass, and narcotics use along designated safe routes and led to an overall 17% decrease in neighborhood crime. School attended by low-income students who would benefit from a neighborhood-level intervention may do well to implement a similar program co-designed by the local community in order to help improve student safety, intervention effectiveness and community resilience.

Institutional

Inclusive classrooms

While classroom norms restricted to dominant culture risk disincentivizing minority student participation, inclusive classrooms, on the other hand, provide a space for culturally responsive teachers to cultivate cross-cultural engagement by connecting many students’ cultures to the lesson material. Research-based evidence for inclusive classrooms demonstrates their effectiveness as motivationally supportive learning environments that enhance minority student engagement by stimulating greater academic and social inclusion, creating more balanced participation opportunities and fostering an improved sense of belonging within the learning community. The inclusive classroom’s impact on belonging has been demonstrated during collaborations between students with and without disabilities, after which the two groups no longer felt separate. Inclusion-based frameworks like Universal Design for Learning (UDL) create diverse pathways to retention by guiding teachers in presenting the subject’s importance in a way that resonates across values, is accessible across learning styles and abilities and builds on students’ various preferences for expression by permitting diverse options in assignment completion to demonstrate having met lesson goals. Teachers who have aligned course delivery with UDL have reported benefits of improved peer interactions among students, reduced challenging behavior and enhanced learning, in addition to their own reduced workloads, improved job satisfaction and increased self-efficacy for inclusion. But despite inclusive learning frameworks’ proven effectiveness, research reveals that its impact is reduced when led by teachers with low belief towards inclusion. These teachers reportedly exhibit high stress during lessons which has been shown to negatively impact burnout, student absenteeism and teacher behavior management. Teachers challenged by inclusive instruction may benefit from the additional support of workspaces that promote teacher development, collaboration among educational staff and allow teachers to be reflective in their self-examination of personal biases. Also, culturally responsive teaching workshops that consist of interventions in the behavioral, cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness domains have been shown to shift attitudes about intelligence as an innate and unalterable ability, improve knowledge of social identities and barriers to learning for underrepresented groups and further develop skills related to inclusive instruction.

Intersectional leadership

School leadership’s influence on learning is second only to classroom teaching, with empirical evidence demonstrating that educational leadership accounts for 27% of the variation in learning outcomes. But effective leadership is sensitive to context and having a great grasp on leadership principles is just as important as knowing how, when and where to apply them. With an ever-growing population of minority students, increasing emphasis continues to be placed on the importance of leadership that is culturally sensitive and socially just in its application. School principals, especially but not limited to those with dominant social identities must be equipped with anti-bias and anti-racist perspectives or risk undermining inclusive school environments and becoming a barrier to fulfillment for minority teachers and students. The increasing popularity of inclusive education has brought to light the utility of intersectional leadership, often defined as leadership that is anti-racist, anti-sexist, promotes awareness of how social dynamics influence outcomes for marginalized communities and leverages key roles to advance equity in prominent social institutions. Intersectionality, a term often used today to represent the possession of multiple minority identities was originally conceptualized in 1989 by Black feminist legal theorist Kimberlé Crenshaw to explain the exponentially oppressive experiences of Black women. The severity of Black women’s oppression is largely due to their placement at or near the bottom of both U.S. race and gender hierarchies, ensuring amplified social bias from males and various race groups that has historically rendered Black women invisible beyond limited socially acceptable roles. However, it is this lifelong exposure to amplified bias against multiple, highly visible identities that equips Black women to be uniquely effective as both leaders and role models for other leaders. Feminist Standpoint Theory, which posits that with a low social position comes unique perspective and knowledge not readily accessible to dominant groups, is foundational to the asset-based approaches of Black women who as intersectional leaders draw on racialized and gendered experiences to resist mechanisms of social oppression. Qualitative accounts depict Black women principals elevating care above individualism, bridging stakeholder interests and minority student realities, and demonstrating an unrelenting commitment to closing gaps in both student achievement and surrounding communities. A “Black feminist caring as strength” approach that takes disadvantaged students’ circumstances, projected outcomes and community impact into account during policy and disciplinary decisions is often an age-appropriate alternative to the justice-oriented thinking known to severely penalize minority students through a biased lens. Research also supports Indigenous women principals who share a comparable intersectional burden with Black women, and who qualitative accounts describe as oriented towards collaboration, perseverance and intuitive decision-making as well-positioned to contribute unique knowledge and perspective as leaders and leadership role models. However, more quantitative research is needed to improve our understanding of leadership styles common among Black and Indigenous women and their impact on student achievement. But while the characteristics that make intersectional leaders effective in their roles are unique, so are the challenges that they experience in representation of and service to students and teachers. Educational leaders with oppressed identities, potentially burdened by their own experiences of systemic gendered racism, may at times exhibit fatigue when called upon by students to model contextually effective resistance against oppression. Leaders of all identities may be susceptible to this fatigue at varying degrees, and thus, a shared burden of resistance across educational leadership, encouraged by a support system of social justice-oriented administrators and teachers with agency to disseminate social navigation strategies is critical to the endurance of intersectional leadership and minority students’ access to cultural strategies.

Service learning 

The well-supported impact of experiential learning on knowledge retention is grounded in the application level of Bloom’s taxonomy, and yet the classroom in its traditional form stops short of allowing students to practically apply lessons in real-world social contexts. Hypothetical classroom scenarios are engaging but may lack the moral complexity of actual problems with real-time impact on community resources. But service learning opportunities, service-based educational experiences made available in some schools, position students to apply classroom knowledge to either school or local needs and activate the higher-order thinking required to considerately implement community-level solutions. Studies have shown that service learning opportunities have a positive impact on learning, lesson retention and graduation rates, and influence students beyond the classroom by facilitating enhanced civic engagement, early career skill acquisition and improved career development. Also, opportunities formed as a result of school partnerships with local community-based organizations may uniquely benefit disadvantaged students by facilitating a platform for critically calling out and authentically addressing the harms present in their communities. For more affluent students, service learning volunteering offers an opportunity for the self-exploration of identity, privilege and power as well as exposure to the social mechanisms that burden minorities and people living in poverty, and supporting research shows that White females engaging in pre-service teaching experienced a significant decrease in implicit bias towards Black students. Furthermore, among proponents of critical race theory and service learning, the concept of critical service learning has taken root as an alternative that activates students’ critical consciousness by centering social justice projects that encourage open reflection and corrective social action. While traditional service learning projects offer much-needed community support, critical service learning projects emphasize the more emancipatory aspects of its counterpart by facilitating students’ work against the resource imbalance that creates the need for community service in the first place. Whether through service learning’s emphasis on community partnership or critical service learning’s direct acknowledgement and action against social harms, each has been shown as an effective means for developing students’ critical consciousness and helping achieve the in-depth worldview needed to enhance inclusivity in classrooms, decolonize educational tools and bring about radical change to imbalanced institutions. Although college students tend to reflect positively on the value of their high school service learning experience, currently, only 23 of the 50 states count service learning credits towards graduation. However, given its profound benefits of real-world knowledge application and favorable reviews among students, it is hopeful that more states will consider policy changes to reflect service as an important development opportunity for their students.

Interpersonal

Anti-racist administrators

During the War on Drugs in the 1970’s, harsher sentences for possession of drugs more accessible to disadvantaged communities of color and disproportionate drug-related arrests for Black Americans persisted for decades despite similar levels of drug use among non-minorities. Fortunately, the War on Drugs has since been somewhat de-escalated by social justice reforms to help acknowledge racism’s influence on the severity of drug-related punishment, rectify enforcement and sentencing disparities and restore victims of racialized policies and practices. While the decline in racialized drug enforcement among U.S. adults is noteworthy, a damaging parallel remains present in public schools where zero tolerance drug policies are enforced through a lens of implicit bias. Much like the War on Drugs, zero tolerance policies are grounded in the broken window theory which promotes strong reactions to minor offenses in order to firmly communicate behavioral expectations. In the context of schools, this often leads to administrative overreactions that intend to make an example of students but traumatize minority children and treat their educational access as disposable. Exclusionary consequences which may range from out-of-school suspension and expulsion to alternative school placements are disproportionately experienced by minority students and widely viewed as an entry point into the school-to-prison pipeline. Research has shown that Black girls are more likely to receive exclusionary consequences for minor infractions when compared to their White and Latina counterparts, with exclusion linked to higher dropout rates, increased illegal drug use and a higher likelihood of exposure to the juvenile justice system. Although alternative school placements are often framed as rehabilitative, qualitative accounts of nine middle school students’ experiences at an alternative school depict common themes of dehumanization and adultification, and one analysis showed that only 59% of students returning from alternative school placements were able to finish the school year in a comprehensive high school, suggesting difficulty with reintegration. The life-changing harms caused by the disproportionate wielding of zero tolerance policies against minority students have more frequently become the subject of community protests, reactive lawsuits and scholarly research, and schools are increasingly responding by adopting strategies to reduce disparities in discipline and improve awareness, empathy and restoration. Furthermore, research shows that reducing discipline disparities is most effective when coupled with sustained anti-racist solidarity among leadership, and the demographic divide that largely exists in urban schools between administrators and students has emphasized the importance of positive White racial identity in institutions with predominantly White administrators to facilitate anti-racist educational practices. For Whites, the process of establishing “a positive White racial identity involves becoming aware of one’s whiteness, accepting this aspect of one’s identity as socially meaningful and personally salient, and ultimately internalizing a realistically positive view of whiteness which is not based on assumed superiority.” Affinity groups such as WAKE UP! (White Administrators Addressing K-12 Equity by Unpacking Privilege) offer White urban school leaders a safe space to intentionally engage in the sometimes painful, yet important self-reflection critical to positive identity development by self-identifying bias, unpacking privilege and discussing opportunities to reduce institutional racism and discipline disparities within their schools. Some school administrators transitioning to more treatment-oriented discipline strategies have adopted a restorative practice approach to help facilitate community-building, problem-solving circles, restorative conversations and re-entry conferences to improve student reintegration. Growing in popularity in and beyond the U.S., restorative practice approaches have been shown to improve student reintegration and benefit students behaviorally, socially and academically when implemented within a multi-tiered system of support with high fidelity and schoolwide buy-in. Increasing recognition of the role that implicit bias plays in discipline disparities continues to validate anti-racism and empathy as critical leadership attributes, and more research is needed to demonstrate the impact of anti-racist attitudes among administrators on discipline disparity reduction and the implementation of treatment-oriented discipline strategies.

Social justice-oriented teachers 

Racial supremacy as a relative concept relies on belief in the inferiority of other races, and dominant race groups may reinforce racial hierarchies by consciously or unconsciously communicating these beliefs in everyday speech, behavior and legal action. In 1886, Plessy vs. Ferguson ruled in favor of “separate but equal” education, reaffirming constitutional protections for all-White schools while also reinforcing public perceptions of inferior learning ability among Blacks. In 1954, the Brown vs. Board of Education decision reversed course by declaring school segregation illegal and was largely heralded as a civil rights victory. But a new era of White school board-led racial integration meant closures for many Black schools, loss of work for many Black teachers, and the advancement of the White, middle-class teacher trend in U.S. public schools. Today’s public school teaching workforce is 80% White and Fall 2018 enrollment counts show that minority students make up 50% of the student population. Black teachers of the Brown vs. Board of Education era, while justifiably concerned about their jobs, identified the issue with this imbalance in asserting that for teachers without a social justice orientation, their perceptions, attitudes and behaviors may ultimately hinder Black students’ intellectual and social progress. Race and gender minorities commonly experience assumptions of inferiority in social settings, often expressed as low expectations of intelligence, strength or character and assignment of low value to culturally normative speech and behavior. In classrooms, teachers’ expectations and evaluations of students’ performance and behavior may vary depending upon teacher-student demographic dynamics and bias within the teacher-student relationship. Several research-based accounts depict students who are Black or low-income as more likely to receive fewer grade-appropriate assignments, limited engagement and low-quality instruction from non-Black teachers. Furthermore, data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 indicate that a racial or gender difference increases teachers’ likelihood of perceiving students as disruptive and inattentive, and high levels of exposure to assumptions of inferiority and other messages of negative self-worth have been linked to depressive symptoms. The potential consequences of repeated exposures to teacher bias highlight the critical nature of ensuring that schools are staffed by socially conscious educators, and descriptive representation among teaching staff has been affirmed as an effective means for reducing the bias in teacher-student interactions. The idea of a representative bureaucracy in which communities promote high quality social services by employing demographically similar public servants is not unique to education but has been emphasized consistently in educational literature as an effective strategy for improving equity in classrooms. Results from one study revealed that a teaching staff of at least 50% Black educators assigned 18% more Black students to gifted programs when compared to a staff with no Black educators, and that a higher proportion of minority educators in schools translates to a lower proportion of minority students assigned to special education. Also, a descriptively representative teaching staff has been shown to provide students with relief from racialized, gendered and “othered” interactions through passive benefits such as decreased stereotype threat, increased role model effect, improved empathy due to greater alignment of beliefs and values and ad-hoc resocialization of colleagues exhibiting bias. However, retaining enough minority teachers to reflect student demographics remains problematic for many schools despite enhanced recruitment efforts. Teachers of color may hope to improve minority student outcomes, uplift local communities and advocate for social justice within and on behalf of schools, but often report experiencing cumulative and ongoing racism perpetuated by non-minority staff and parents as harmful to their well-being and a barrier to retention. However, critical professional development communities may help to combat these adverse experiences by decreasing isolation, improving retention and heightening advocacy potential for minority teachers. Thus, minority student achievement and minority teacher retention may stand to benefit from increased critical community that uplifts and transforms schools into equitable spaces to learn and work.

Multicultural counselors

The pre-existing disparity in counseling referrals for minority and low-income students has only been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic and co-occurring mental health crisis, making cross-cultural reach in K-12 counseling service delivery more critical than ever. Students’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors are often grounded in distinct cultural norms, and thus counselors who can approach students’ problems through their unique cultural lens gain the advantage of understanding the impact that each student’s racial identity has on teachers’ perceptions, advancement opportunities, academic achievement and help-seeking behaviors. For example, while affluent White students are reported to frequently seek counseling services, students who identify as Asian-American have proven more reluctant. Research suggests this reluctance in help-seeking behavior may stem from the model minority stereotype which promotes a deficiency view of Asian-Americans who lack in academic, social or career success as opposed to holding accountable the structural racism that confines minority groups to societally prescribed identities and finds fault with those who exist outside of them. For some Asian-American students who internalize high expectations of capability, admitting academic need may lead to feelings of shame that create a barrier to seeking counseling. And for counselors whose degree of bias restricts an acknowledgement of multiple worldviews, an inability to consider culturally normative behavior may lead to race-blind solutions for problems rooted in cultural identity, placing students at risk for microaggressions and recommendations that aren’t aligned with cultural values. Despite the clear need of cultural awareness and humility for counselors catering to a multicultural student population, there is still limited emphasis on multiculturalism in counselor education programs, licensure exams and administrative evaluations of practicing counselors. Although The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) requires that counselor education programs offer social and cultural diversity coursework to maintain accreditation, wide variability in focus exists between programs. But studies show that practicing school counselors who engaged in social and cultural diversity-infused coursework during their education exhibited a higher level of multicultural awareness when compared to peers who only took a single diversity-related course, and thus, expanded considerations for multiculturalism in accreditation and counselor education program requirements may help reflect the practical application of counseling in today’s schools. While state licensing also has the potential to ensure a quality standard of multicultural competence, only 30 states and the District of Columbia require counselors to pass a licensure exam. Also, a quantitative content analysis revealed licensure exams for school counselors to be highly variable between states, although each falls short of properly assessing multicultural competence. In the absence of licensure as a path to substantiation, there have been increased calls to evaluate new and practicing counselors for multicultural competence in order to improve accountability to minority students and parents. Research also suggests that school administrators may have little training on evaluating school counselors, and thus, the standardization of validated and high reliability assessment tools such as the Multicultural Counseling Inventory may provide counselors and administrators with an avenue for increased accountability to multicultural student populations.

Intrapersonal

Stereotype threat

Negative racial stereotypes have historically been used to justify punitive policy action, environmental injustice, institutional barriers and interpersonal harm against minorities, and serve as a reminder of how White idealized standards for minority groups ultimately promote cultural assimilation. So-called model minorities are popularly defined in dominant culture as socially ideal representations of minorities; however, this ideal is often achieved by omitting unique cultural and ethnic patterns of speech and behavior that invite stereotype bias. In this way, the threat of being stereotyped, experiencing racialized encounters and receiving limited access to social institutions systematically incentivizes minorities to culturally assimilate, although often at the cost of their own positive racial identity. Results from an Implicit Associations Test revealed that a group of Hispanic students associated success more with Whiteness than with Hispanic identity, and in another study, Latino/a students with a strong ethnic identity reported that the threat of being stereotyped led them to consciously display non-stereotyped behaviors during cross-cultural interactions. The internalization of the inferior race messaging conveyed by stereotypes has demonstrated insidious effects on minority students who worry excessively over whether their culturally normative behavior is viewed by others through a reductive racial lens. This disruption in thinking tends to create a cognitive load that undermines focus, triggers self-doubt, anxiety and hypervigilance, and negatively impacts the academic experience, ultimately leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Negative outcomes may be exacerbated for students under chronic stereotype threat given research-supported associations with disproportionately higher scientific disidentification in Black and Hispanic science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) students. Also, stronger ethnic identity has been associated with increased vulnerability to stereotypes and greater dissociation between academic and cultural identities, the psychological impact of which has generated increased scientific research investigating ethnic minority status as a risk factor for depression and schizophrenia. Positive racial identity reinforcement has been shown to counter the stress and anxiety effects of stereotype threat through increased exposure to respective minority role models, especially those whose success is considered self-made rather than inherited.

Imposter syndrome

In 1978, psychologists Pauline R. Clance and Suzanne A. Imes coined the term “imposter syndrome” to describe high performers’ persistent doubts about their intellect and capability. Perfectionistic characteristics have been shown to reliably predict imposter syndrome in academically talented students, often characterized by disregarding achievements while focusing on mistakes, constantly measuring oneself against peers and displaying a strong need for external validation despite difficulty internalizing success. This form of unfounded self-doubt is common among race and gender minority students, and especially prevalent in dominant STEM culture where perfectionistic ideals are cultivated through inflexible performance standards, social identity-based hierarchies and dichotomous thinking. Descriptions of dominant STEM culture in schools depict distinct experiences of belonging where Asian and White male students are most accepted, and downward social comparisons serve as the basis for an uneven distribution of teachers’ expectations, mentoring and acknowledgements. For neglected students of color, exclusionary practices motivated by low acceptance of intellectual capability may trigger socially prescribed perfectionistic beliefs of never being able to live up to dominant STEM culture’s assimilation standards, leading some to overprepare and overwork to accommodate fears of fraudulence. One study reveals that students’ experiences of racial discrimination in Grade 7 were associated with socially prescribed perfectionism in Grade 8, which was then linked to depressive symptoms in Grade 9. But imposter syndrome was shown to moderate the link between perfectionism and depression, indicating that early treatment of imposter syndrome may prevent discrimination-related depression symptoms and help reduce the disproportionate number of race and gender minority STEM students who are either pushed out or choose to leave in favor of other pursuits. Minority students seeking treatment should consider engaging culturally competent counselors and staff who are well-known allies and may also consider self-assessment via the Clance Imposter Scale which has demonstrated efficacy for helping those with imposter syndrome self-identify. Studies also support effectively combatting imposter syndrome by acknowledging feelings of imposterism, separating these feelings from objective facts, visualizing success, developing a reaffirming response to experiencing setbacks, rewarding oneself for success and imagining self-confidence to affirm self-worth. Furthermore, the increasing availability of inclusive and culturally competent STEM spaces demonstrates that large groups of race and gender minority students in STEM positively impact persistence for other members of those same groups, allowing greater access to peer support, mentoring and student organizations. For those students who do choose to persist in non-inclusive or dominant STEM spaces, research suggests a “persistence through resistance” approach of carefully navigating the landscape while strategically working to educate stakeholders and improve dominant STEM culture for themselves and the next generation of minority students.

Racial battle fatigue 

An overwhelming research focus on resilience and coping strategies for U.S. students of color is further indicative of the environment of mundane and extreme stress in which many receive their education. Academic, social and communal spaces within school environments are most hostile towards Black students, and when entering White-culturally dominant schools where minority status is devalued and depreciated, the marginalization and extreme surveillance that these students encounter may lead to internalized feelings of illegitimacy. The existence of slavery and racism within the Black psyche as an ongoing and largely irreconciled trauma ignites questions of psychological risk in schools where racism is constant and continuous. Research suggests that everyday discrimination causes students of color to divert energy intended for learning to instead coping with several psychological stress responses, including frustration, anger, resentment, helplessness, fear, shock, disappointment, anxiety and hopelessness. Psychological stress responses and coping styles may differ across race groups, and for Black males, culturally scripted reactive coping styles to authority figures may be misinterpreted as behavioral dysfunction by teachers unable to distinguish between responses to discrimination and threatening behavior. Research depicts accounts of Black male students being labeled as complainers, troublemakers, hypersensitive, emotional, argumentative and irritating during the act of self-reporting discrimination, which has led some members of this group to adopt a strategy of ignoring microaggressions in order to avoid confirming anger-related stereotypes. But this form of suppression coping risks normalizing a racialized dynamic in which the student must constantly anticipate, prepare for and endure racism from the offending party, and both suppression and reactive coping styles risk further compounding psychological stress. The physical and emotional exhaustion from consistently confronting racism and accumulating race-related stress, or racial battle fatigue, is often compared to post-traumatic stress syndrome in that racial encounters during a fatigued state may be intensely experienced as sudden, traumatic, highly negative and emotionally painful, and students’ ability to confront and accurately identify racism may be diminished over time. Recovery strategies for racial battle fatigue often involve disconnecting from less welcoming people and places; additionally, due to the pervasiveness of racism in academic institutions, adaptive coping strategies such as frequenting spaces that reaffirm and validate positive racial identity and shared experiences of everyday racism and participating in collective acts of resistance have been shown to help mitigate impact for students of color. Also, self-definition, another strategy often presented as a radical, yet effective protective mechanism for minorities requires assuming an alternative theoretical ground of expressing one’s cultural identity without regard to opposing social pressures. This ongoing resistance to and liberation from opposing social pressures may be accomplished through knowledge and pride in one’s intersecting identities, self-love, rejection of miseducation and self-hatred invoked by anti-Black social norms, a strong sense of agency, awareness of performative identities as a response to incorrect, yet socially dominant anti-Blackness and belief in self-prescribed Black futures. Minority parents whose parental advocacy positions them as a critical extension of their children are also at risk for racial battle fatigue and may find adaptive coping strategies beneficial in response to school climates with a culture of bias. 

Conclusion

Although parental consent often presents as a difficult barrier to data collection in K-12 student populations, the amount of research performed since 1988 to advance our knowledge of societal impacts on educational quality has provided modern researchers with enough evidence to connect public policy, community characteristics, institutional dynamics, interpersonal relationships and student attributes to the psychological impact of bias for minority students. National policy shifts that affirm limited cultural climates in U.S. public schools and negatively influence access to safe facilities at predominantly minority schools work in opposition to the achievement of minority students who must endure further social and political obstacles during their education. Minority teachers attribute much of their difficulty with retention to issues within their work environment, and for students of color, poor minority teacher retention means fewer cultural role models to serve as social brokers and model behavior that is both culturally and institutionally acceptable. Black teachers who, during the Brown vs. Board of Education era, imagined racial bias as socially and academically problematic for minority children have had their insightful concerns validated repeatedly since. This synthesis of educational literature highlights barriers and facilitators to racial equity in education at each level of the socio-ecologic model, and at the policy level, the literature reveals a pattern of race-blind policies that promote cultural and linguistic assimilation and act as a macro-level barrier to minority educational achievement. Empirical evaluations of affirmative action reveal it to be a critical function of institutional diversity, creating racial diversity when present in admissions processes and resulting in worsening racial disparities once it has been banned or replaced by race-neutral policies. This further suggests that in order to retain racial diversity in institutions, it must be bureaucratically maintained by race-conscious policies. Also, the literature demonstrates a pattern of decades-long social stigmatization towards race-conscious policies followed by eventual social acceptance and widespread adoption, and this suggests that politically rebranding stigmatized policies and introducing educational campaigns to tout the benefits of racially, culturally and linguistically diverse institutions, when coupled with racially representative implementation and evaluation may be an effective path towards greater social acceptance and sustainable racial diversity in institutions. Furthermore, much of the literature on affirmative action fails to account for downstream impacts (e.g., integration challenges) and future research ought to consider how both race-related barriers and race-conscious supports may impact minority student achievement at largely monocultural institutions. Also, an uneven distribution of community resources and environmental burdens in favor of more affluent communities continue to create environmental inequities that are challenging to resolve. Maintaining ambient air quality will require some collaboration between federal and state actors in order to ensure land use guidelines that restrict development of new polluters near schools, as well as effective air quality mitigation strategies for schools already positioned in high-pollution zones. Today’s city planners often regard the discipline as a premeditated effort to shape the future, and in order to ensure sustainable solutions that counter long-standing segregationist practices, a race-considerate approach to city planning is needed to mitigate the environmental injustices that impact students’ capacity for regular attendance and ensure the safety of the facilities in which they learn. In order to promote a quality standard for institutions attended by minority race students, school boards should consider framing indicators of school quality through a lens of inclusiveness. Consistent throughout the literature is anti-racist solidarity among leadership as a critical indicator for achieving a culture of reduced bias and inclusive learning, and school boards as key drivers of educational culture must take the lead in critically examining policies, retaining representative staff that are able to effectively serve a multicultural student population and implementing inclusive solutions that support minority students’ persistence and ensure their psychological safety in the environments that they depend on for achievement and socialization. Although parental consent may present as a difficult barrier to data collection in K-12 populations, more research is needed to understand and help mitigate the psychological impact of bias for minority students.  

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Health Analytics & Visualizations. The author(s) would like to thank William Chao-Wei Tsang for his peer review and comments.

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Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest or financial incentive. The author’s relationships with the stakeholders and subject matter did not lead to unreasonable bias or compromise the objectivity of the research.